Written By: Krista Fish

According to the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources or the World Conservation Union), over 1/3 of primate species are listed as critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable (IUCN, 1996). Although primates are found in tropical and subtropical habitats such as woodlands and savannas, over 90% of primate species occur in tropical forests (Cowlishaw and Dunbar, 2000; Mittermeier and Cheney, 1987). Because primates are at their highest diversity in tropical forests, the loss of these forests is widely regarded as the process that most threatens primate species (Chapman and Peres, 2001; Mittermeier and Cheney, 1987; Southwick and Siddiqi, 2001). Growing human populations which are expanding into forest habitats and clearing forests for agriculture are the chief cause of forest loss (Cowlishaw and Dunbar, 2000). Commercial logging, subsistence harvesting of timber, mining, and dam construction are other human activities leading to forest loss in the tropics (Cowlishaw and Dunbar, 2000; Mittermeier and Cheney, 1987). Throughout their history, humans have utilized timber and converted forests to agricultural land.

However, the rate of forest loss has increased in the last 50 years (Cowlishaw and Dunbar, 2000). During the 1990s, 15.2 million ha were lost annually in the tropics (FAO, 2001). Recent data suggests that deforestation continues at an alarming rate- especially in primate habitats. From 2000-2005, South America lost 4.3 million ha of forest each year and Africa lost 4.0 million ha per year (FAO, 2005). These high rates of deforestation have resulted in the loss of more than 50% of the ancestral forest cover around the world (WRI/WCMC/WWF, 1997).

The extinction risk faced by primates is exacerbated by characteristics of their biology. Many of the diurnal primates have a large body size (>5 kg). Large body size may increase extinction risk for primates due to two factors.

First, large primates are a more profitable target for human hunters compared to small primates (Cowlishaw and Dunbar, 2000). Second, their large body size imposes constraints on their life histories (Cowlishaw and Dunbar, 2000). Large-bodied primates have slow life histories- they require more time to reach sexual maturity and a longer period between births when compared to smaller primates. As a result, many large primate species cannot quickly replace members of their population who may be lost due to human activities such as hunting (Purvis et al., 2000).

In addition to the threat created by forest loss, there are other dynamics at work. Forest fragmentation, primate crop raiding, and hunting of primates for use in medicines, as pets, and for food also impact the ability of primates to survive into the future. These threats to primates are found throughout the world, but their extent varies based on local economic conditions, religions, and politics.

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Primate Conservation Concerns in Africa

In addition to habitat loss, hunting negatively impacts many African primate species. Although subsistence hunting of primates and other wild animals has occurred in Africa for centuries, the recent expansion of the bushmeat trade in Africa may pose a serious threat to primates. Estimates for some African cities suggest that half of all protein consumed in urban areas comes from the bushmeat trade (Fa et al., 1995). A survey of bushmeat available in markets in the Central African markets revealed that hunters target prey such as primates because their body size makes them easy to hunt, easy to transport to market, and also brings in a good price (Fa et al., 1995). The results of the market survey also suggest that endangered primates such as guenons (Cercopithecus nictitans, C. preussi), and drills (Mandrillus leucophaeus) are hunted at levels that far exceed sustainable harvests (Fa et al., 1995).

The problem of the bushmeat trade in Africa illustrates the often intertwined nature of threats to animals. For example, timber companies move into forests in order to commercially log the forest. Not only does this result in loss of forest, but it also contributes to the bushmeat trade. Logging company employees often kill wild animals for their own consumption or to sell for profit in nearby cities. Many loggers depend upon cash generated from bushmeat in order to pay for basic needs such as food, clothing, healthcare, and education for themselves and their families (Wilkie et al., 1992). 

Primates also impact African economies through their crop-raiding activities. In Africa, shifting agriculture has been practiced for centuries (Naughton-Treves et al., 1998). The resulting landscape is a mosaic of fields/orchards planted near forests or forest fragments. Primates utilize this mixed landscape to their advantage and feed in both fields and the forest (Naughton-Treves et al., 1998). Although primates have likely been crop-raiding since the advent of agriculture, the degree of conflict between farmers and wildlife has recently escalated as humans move closer to the remaining forests (Hill, 1997). Farmers report large economic losses due to crop-raiding (Hill, 1997). In order to prevent these losses, farmers set traps for crop raiders or lobby governments to undertake eradication programs. Baboons (Papio anubis) and vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) are frequently targeted because they are perceived to be the animals which most threaten crops (Hill, 1997). Even for widespread species such as baboons, hunting to control crop-raiding may be done at unsustainable levels (Fitzgibbon et al., 1995). Primate crop-raiding also harms conservation efforts. Farmers whose land is nearest to forests report the majority of losses to crop-raiding animals (Hill, 1997). Losses to crop-raiding and the resulting negative perception of primates affect the views of local people regarding primates and the usefulness of protected forest habitats (Hill, 2002).

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Primate Conservation Concerns in Madagascar

Madagascar is a large island located off the east coast of Africa and is home to a unique array of bird, mammal, and reptile life. In Madagascar, 100% of the primate fauna is endemic. The prosimian primates in Madagascar evolved in isolation from monkeys, apes, and many of the potential competitors and predators found in mainland Africa and Asia (Richard, 1987). The recent arrival of humans who began settling Madagascar from Indonesia and Africa between 1500-2000 years ago altered the ecology of the island (Richard, 1987). Not long after humans colonized Madagascar, 15 species of primates became extinct (Cowlishaw and Dunbar, 2000). The extinct primate fauna in Madagascar were all larger in body size than living lemurs. One species even grew to 200 kg- approximately the size of a male gorilla (Cowlishaw and Dunbar, 2000). The exact cause of the extinction of the Malagasy primates is unknown; however, several factors have been suggested. The first people to settle in Madagascar burned forests to clear the land for agriculture and the resulting habitat loss may have led to the extinction of the large lemurs (Chapman and Peres, 2001; Burney et al., 1997). Humans also brought new species of plants and animals to the island. The introduced species may have been destroyed the native plant community or been competitors for food (Cowlishaw and Dunbar, 2000).  Additionally, the large, terrestrial lemurs would have been attractive targets for human hunting (Cowlishaw and Dunbar, 2000). Today the primates on Madagascar face the same challenges that doomed their large relatives. Deforestation continues in Madagascar as land is cleared for agriculture uses and timber is used as a fuel source (Cowlishaw and Dunbar, 2000). Lemurs are also hunted for subsistence (Cowlishaw and Dunbar, 2000). However, hunting practices are not uniform throughout the country. Hunting of certain lemur species is forbidden by taboos which vary from region to region (Cowlishaw and Dunbar, 2000). 

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Primate Conservation Concerns in Asia

There are more critically endangered primate species in Asia than anywhere else in the world (IUCN, 1996). Primates in Asia are losing their forest habitat. However, during the period from 2000-2005, Asia reported net forest gains (FAO, 2005). The discrepancy is largely due to the types of forests that are being planted in China. Both diverse tropical forests and land previously used for agriculture are now being converted to monoculture plantations that supply hardwood and pulp for paper production (Choudhury, 2001; FAO, 2005; Kumara and Singh, 2004). Because plantations seldom contain species of trees that provide food for primates, these habitats are unsuitable for primates and other forest animals.

Hunting of primates is a serious threat to primates in Asia. Although consuming primate meat is forbidden by Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam, the reality is that primates are hunted in areas where these religions are practiced (Cowlishaw and Dunbar, 2000). Many traditional religions in Asia do not forbid primate consumption, so primates may be hunted to supply meat to these populations (Choudhury, 2001; Kumara and Singh, 2004). In urban areas, meat from primates and other wild animals is a prized food item as it is associated with elite classes (Workman, pers. comm.). Primates are also hunted to be sold as pets and for use in traditional medicine (Nijman, 2004; O’Brien et al., 2004; Workman, 2004). The demand for primate pets has increased in recent years due to the growing middle class in China and its desire for exotic pets (Workman, 2004).

Although many primates in Asia are critically endangered, others suffer from a problem of overabundance. In particular, the case of rhesus macaques in India highlights how trade bans helped a population to recover, only to have created new concerns. During the 1960s, researchers documented a large decline in rhesus macaque populations in India as the macaques were being overtrapped to support biomedical research, vaccine production, and pharmaceutical testing in western laboratories (Southwick and Siddiqi, 2001). Bans on rhesus exports helped the population to stabilize and then expand. Now, rhesus macaques are considered a pest species throughout their range (Southwick and Siddiqi, 2001). Rhesus macaque populations have expanded to nearby urban areas where they steal food from homes, gardens, and occasionally attack people (Southwick and Siddiqi, 2001). Although both laws and religious traditions prohibit harming these animals, many people living near the macaques have negative attitudes towards the macaques and relocation programs for problem monkey groups have been undertaken (Choudhury, 2001; Southwick and Siddiqi, 2001).

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Primate Conservation Concerns in the Neotropics

Mantled howler monkey feeding in a Panamanian forest fragment. Photo - Krista Fish

In the New World tropics, two dominant conservation concerns have emerged: forest fragmentation and hunting. Throughout Central America, there are few remaining large tracts of tropical forest (Chapman and Peres, 2001; Estrada et al., 1994). Instead, the landscape is one where forest fragments appear as islands in a sea of urban and agricultural land use. These fragments are not simply small versions of large forests. Instead, a greater percentage of the forest fragment area is subject to edge effects such as lower levels of humidity, increase in wind, and drier soils near the edge (Marsh, 2003; Turner, 1996). These edge effects alter the type of vegetation that remains in the forest which in turn affects the ability of primates to survive in forest fragments. Fragmentation problems are further compounded as some primates may be unable to travel between fragments (Marsh, 2003; Turner, 1996). As a result, the deleterious effects of inbreeding may impact primates living in fragments (Chiarello, 2003; Pope, 1996).

Fragmentation is also a concern in parts of South America. The fragmentation of the Atlantic coastal forests in Brazil has been occurring for the last 500 years, beginning with the arrival of Europeans (Chiarello, 2003). The majority of the Atlantic coastal forest now exists as fragments (Chiarello, 2003). This region of Brazil is of concern to primatologists as two genera of primates are endemic to these forests: Brachyteles and Leontopithecus (Chiarello, 2003). In order to conserve these genera, the threats of fragmentation, inbreeding, and hunting need to be addressed.

Even in the remaining large tracts of forests such as those found in the Amazon basin, primate populations are declining. Large-bodied primate species such as howler monkeys (Alouatta sp.), woolly monkeys (Lagothrix sp.), and spider monkeys (Ateles sp.) are favorite prey items of humans (Peres and Dolman, 2000). Subsistence hunters may take hundreds of primates in a year and in many locations, long-term hunting has resulted in the local extinction of large-bodied primates (Chapman and Peres, 2001; Peres and Dolman, 2000).

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People in countries outside of the tropics play a role in primate conservation. The exotic pet trade in the United States is lucrative and primates are part of this trade with prices ranging from $3000 for monkeys to $30,000 for apes (IPPL, 2003). Although the importation of primates for the pet trade was banned in 1975, wild-captured primates are smuggled into the US for the pet trade- especially along the US-Mexico border (IPPL, 2003). The demand for bushmeat also extends beyond the tropics as African expatriates fly bushmeat into European countries (Chapman and Peres, 2001).

Why does primate conservation matter?

Forests around the world serve important roles as they prevent soil degradation and erosion, protect watersheds, limit the greenhouse gas effect, provide subsistence resources, commercial timber, and recreational opportunities (Mittermeier and Cheney, 1987). Primates are part of healthy forests in the tropics as they contribute to forest regeneration. Since many species of primates eat a diet high in fruits, they are important seed dispersers (Chapman and Onderdonk, 1998). As primates feed on fruit, they spit out or defecate seeds away from the parent tree which gives the seed a higher chance of germination and survival (Chapman and Onderdonk, 1998; Chapman and Peres, 2001). Trees with large seeds may be particularly impacted by the loss of primates as other frugivorous animals such as birds may be unable to disperse their seeds (Chapman and Onderdonk, 1998). In addition to seed-dispersal, primates play other roles in their habitats as predators, prey, and competitors for resources. The loss of primates from their habitats will have serious implications for other species of plants and animals.

For more information about the Conservation Science Institute Primate Initiative (CSIPI) or if you would like to get involved with the program please contact Krista Fish, CSIPI coordinator, Department of Anthropology, Hale Science Building Campus Box 233, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO. 80309

e-mail: Krista.Fish@Colorado.edu.

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